The Napoleonic Wars were a series of battles conducted among European Coalitions against the First Empire during the reign of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Following revolutionary successes in 1789, France expanded swiftly in strength as Napoleon's army conquered most of Europe. However, Napoleon's Empire was eventually defeated militarily, beginning with the invasion of Russia in 1812 and ending with the devastating defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. As a result, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France.
The Napoleonic Wars provided the motivation for European powers to reform their armies, including the use of artillery, the organization of the military, and the institution of obligatory military service. All of these conflicts, which have occurred on an unprecedented scale, have resulted in a total of 5-7 million deaths, of which approximately 3-4 million are soldiers and 1-3 million are civilians.
The Napoleonic Wars caused the Holy Roman Empire to disintegrate and sowed nationalism in Germany and Italy, which subsequently aided in the unification of the two countries in the mid-nineteenth century. At the same time, Spain's global empire began to unravel as France conquered Spain's territory, undermining its grip over the colonies and igniting a series of battles in the Americas. Another direct result of the Napoleonic Wars was that the British Empire became the world's most dominant power for the following century, dubbed the British Peace.
Until today, there had been no consensus on when the French Revolutionary War ended and the Napoleonic Wars began. It was originally supposed to occur on November 9, 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte took over the administration of France following the 18-month coup d'etat, but most historians believe it was during the Revolutionary War. France lasted till 1802, and the Napoleonic Wars began with the declaration of war between France and England on 18 May 1803, after a brief period of peace following the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. These wars ended with Napoleon's fatal defeat at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, and the signing of the Second Peace of Paris on November 20, 1815.
Napoleonic Wars Definition
Some refer to these wars as the Revolutionary and Imperial Wars (Guerres de la Révolution et de l'Empire) because they are seen as a continuation of the wars fought in defense of the French Revolution, which was headed by the wars of the French Revolution. In the First and Second Coalitions, European kingdoms banded together against France. Others, however, believe that these are irrefutable wars of aggression, such as the Peninsular War in Spain from 1808 to 1814.
European historians occasionally refer to the era of continuous war that lasted from April 20, 1792, when France declared war on Austria, until November 20, 1815, as the "Great War," until this moniker became popular. The Great War of France - Grande guerre francaise - took over after the First World War. Finally, these conflicts are frequently referred to as the closing stages of France and Great Britain's Third Hundred Years' War (Troisième Guerre de Cent ans).
Battles with the Second Coalition
After the First Coalition of the British Empire, Austria, Prussia, Spain, and a number of small countries attempted to crush the French Revolution (1792–1797), the Coalition faction was defeated by the general mobilization of France (300,000 people) with military reforms by General Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot and total war tactics.
The victorious France annexed the Rheinland and the Belgian-Dutch-Luxembourg regions of Spain into France. The conquest of the Dutch Republic (also known as the "7 united provinces"; declaration of war on France in 1793) and transformation into the Republic of Batavia by the Treaty of The Hague on January 19, 1795, preceded the abandonment of Prussia and Spain in the same year. Finally, the victorious battle of the young general Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy (1796–1797), first separating the region of Piedmont (Italy) and then the countries under the Pope from the Confederacy, finally forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Campo-Formio (October 17, 1797) ending the Coalition.
The principal force remaining at war with France was Great Britain, which sponsored the Second Coalition, which included Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Sweden, the Kingdom of Mesopotamia, and the Holy Roman Empire. The French government at the time was both corrupt and unstable, incapable of resisting coups or dealing with external challenges, and lacking good ministers such as Carnot and talented generals such as Napoleon Bonaparte (who was in Egypt). Coalition troops led by Russian general Aleksandr Vasilyevich Suvorov defeated the French army.
Bonaparte gave command of the army in Egypt to General Jean Baptiste Kléber, returned to France to make a coup on the 18th of Brumaire (November 9, 1799), overthrew the Directoire, and came to power. The most serious threat was an Austrian offensive on two fronts in Italy and Germany at the same time. The First Consul (Napoléon) took a reserve army that crossed the Alps to Italy. Napoleon won the Battle of Marengo (Italy) on June 18, 1800, while General Jean Victor Marie Moreau beat the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Germany) on December 3, 1800. On February 9, 1801, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Lunéville.
Only the British Empire remained opposed to France. Britain has a strong fleet that masters the seas. After a victory over the Franco-Spanish fleet at Cape Saint Vincent (1797), and the destruction of the French fleet at Aboukir (Egypt) on August 1, 1798, the British fleet continued to threaten the Antilles belonging to France and they were able to unite the powers of mainland Europe against France. The Austrian army, too, despite many defeats, remained a threat to France.
Treaty of Amiens
The Treaty of Amiens was signed on March 25, 1802, between Britain on one side and France on the other, representing the Allies (including France, Spain, Denmark, Norway, and the Republic of Batavia), effectively ending the war. The peace does not appear to last long because neither party is satisfied. On May 18, 1803, hostilities began, but the focus of the conflict moved from the restoration of the French monarchy to the fight against Napoleon, who declared himself Emperor of France on April 28, 1804, and assumed the throne on December 2, 1804.
Naval Battles
The naval battles have continued without disruption. Denmark and Norway were formerly neutral, becoming wealthy through trade during the war. Following the British display of power during the First Shelling of Copenhagen in 1801, the British fleet captured the majority of Danish ships during the Second Shelling of Copenhagen (1807). Denmark abandoned its neutrality and launched a plundering naval campaign, firing tiny cannons at large British ships. The British navy won the Battle of Lyngor, sinking the final Danish escort and bringing the conflict to a conclusion.
When the war restarted in 1805, the British Empire dominated the waters with a resounding victory over the Franco-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar (southwest Spain) on October 21, 1805, and easily drove the French expeditionary force to Ireland. The naval battles, however, continued. A naval battle in the Caribbean had immediate and direct ramifications for the war's outcome, bringing Napoleon back to mainland Europe.
Battles with the Third Coalition
Britain and Russia signed a deal in April 1805 to drive France out of the Netherlands and Switzerland. Following the annexation of Geneva to France and Napoleon's proclamation of himself as King of Italy, Austria likewise sided with the Coalition. On August 9, 1805, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden joined the Third Coalition (which included the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and the Kingdom of Naples).
Spain, Italy, the Republic of Bavaria, and the principalities of Baden and Württemberg were among France's allies. Napoleon was gathering an army in Boulogne (France) to launch an invasion of England, in which France wanted to control the English Channel. He created a complex strategy to entice the British navy to the territories in the West Indies (Caribbean). Austrian troops led by General Karl Mack invaded Bavaria with an army of 70,000 men. Napoleon returned to mainland Europe right away. The French army separated into seven armies to assault the Austrians at the end of July 1805.
Napoleon besieged General Karl Mack at the Battle of Ulm (Germany) from September 25 to October 20, 1805, forcing Mack to surrender. At the same time, the Austrian force south of the Alps, led by Duke Charles, was defeated by French field marshal André Masséna. Napoleon conquered Vienna. However, the French commander Pierre-Charles Villeneuve was defeated at the Battle of Cape Finisterre (July 22, 1805) and entrenched at Cadiz (Spain). This fleet was defeated once more at the Battle of Trafalgar (October 21, 1805). This decisive war put a halt to the attempted invasion of England.
Despite the difficulty of the long supply routes, Napoleon won a great battle on December 2, 1805, at the Battle of Austerlitz (now Slavkov, Czech Republic) against the outnumbered Austro-Russian army led by Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Russian general Mikhail Kutuzov, and Emperor Franz II of Austria. The Austro-Russian coalition lost 16,000 men and 15,000 captives, while the French suffered only 1,300 casualties and 7,000 injuries. This is considered Napoleon's finest victory. On December 26, 1805, Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg (now Bratislava, Slovakia), giving Venice to Italy (King Napoleon) and Tyrol to the Kingdom of Bavaria. The Third Coalition broke up.
Battles with the Fourth Coalition
Only a few months after the breakup of the Third Coalition, the Fourth Coalition was created, consisting of the British Empire, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and the free state of Saxony. On July 12, 1806, Napoleon established the Rheinbund (Confederation of the Rhein), which included the states of the Holy Roman Empire and Germany, with the lesser states joining either the duchy or the bigger kingdom. (Napoleon established the republics of Bavaria and Saxony into kingdoms.)
Prussia did not accept the advantage of France expanding on its doorstep. Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III ordered a general mobilization to declare war against France on August 9, 1806, encouraged by Britain. The Russian army was still far away from Prussia at the time. Napoleon concentrated approximately 160,000 troops in the Rhine region in September 1806 and then pushed to Prussia (later with reinforcements). The quick French advance had broken the will of the 250,000-man Prussian army.
On October 14, 1806, Napoleon and Field Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout defeated the Prussians at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt. The French killed 25,000 Prussians, took 150,000 prisoners, and confiscated 100,000 firearms and 4,000 guns. Napoleon arrived in Berlin on October 27, 1806. He paid a visit to Frederick II of Prussia's grave and told the French generals, "Hats off gentlemen, if he were alive we wouldn't be here today."
From the start of the war to the moment Napoleon invaded Berlin, it took him only 19 days. Prussia signed an armistice at Charlottenburg (Berlin) following this defeat. Napoleon issued a series of ordinances in Berlin, starting November 1, 1806, enforcing a Continental System, prohibiting any trade with Britain in countries under French power.
The British army was reduced to roughly 220,000 men at the time, while the French Grande Armée numbered over a million men at times, including allied troops and guards. The British fleet, on the other hand, hampered French maritime commerce but did not impair continental commerce or endanger French territory. Furthermore, France's population and output (in industry and agriculture) surpassed those of England. However, control of the seas gave Britain significant strength, making a solid peace with France impossible, and Britain might also create an anti-French Coalition at any time.
Battles with the Fifth Coalition
Napoleonic War in Spain
On May 2, 1808, the Spanish people rose up in protest against the French occupation, resulting in the deportation of King Joseph Bonaparte (Napoléon's brother, King of Spain). In 1814, King Fernando VII of Spain took over, which was followed by an invasion of southern France.
At the Battle of Bailen (July 18–22, 1808), the French were beaten. Napoleon was forced to deploy his army to Spain, where he quickly defeated the Spanish-British coalition, forcing the British expeditionary army to abandon the Iberian peninsula. An unexpected Austrian onslaught from behind caused Napoleon to withdraw from the Iberian peninsula. The situation shifted, particularly after British General Arthur Wellesley assumed command of the British force.
The Fifth Coalition
The Fifth Coalition, comprising Britain and Austria, was founded in 1809 when Britain was already battling the French in the Iberian Peninsula and had not yet deployed large forces. Minor successes were also achieved by Britain in the French colonies and at sea. From July 30 to December 10, 1809, they only attempted an advance from Walcheren with 40,000 men to the French-controlled Zeeland (Netherlands).
The conflict shifted to the economic sphere, with the two opponents attempting to strengthen the continental system against the sea blockade. Meanwhile, Britain was fighting the United States in the War of 1812, while France was fighting Spain. When Portugal continued to trade with Britain despite the Continental System, the conflict on the Iberian Peninsula began. When France lost the Battle of Bailén, Spain refused to ally with France, forcing France to invade Spain soon. This spurred England to step in. After the defeat at Austerlitz, Austria realized that her chance to reclaim her kingship over Germany had passed and turned to fight France.
Austria won multiple engagements because Davout's army was too small, with just 170,000 troops to defend the country's eastern border in 1790, compared to 800,000 in 1790. Austria also launched an invasion against the Grand Duchy of Warsaw but was defeated at the Battle of Raszyn (April 19, 1809). The western Galicia region was captured by Polish soldiers. Napoleon led the army against Austria and won a succession of minor battles, but Napoleon was defeated tactically at the decisive battle of Aspern-Essling on May 20–22, 1809. The Austrian commander, Archduke Charles, made the mistake of not pursuing the French. Napoleon then planned to lay siege to Vienna beginning in July 1809, defeating Austria at the Battle of Wagram (July 5–6, 1809).
The war with the Fifth Coalition ended with the peace of Schönbrunn on 24 October 1809 due to Austria's request for an armistice.
The French Empire reached its pinnacle in 1810. Napoleon married Marie-Louise, Princess of Austria, in order to build a long-term alliance with Austria and to have an heir, which his previous wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais, lacked. Napoleon was not only the King of France, but also the Mediator (and Leader) of the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of Rhein. His ambassador in Warsaw oversees the Grand Duchy of Warsaw informally. His allies included Spain (controlled by his brother Joseph Bonaparte), Westphalen (governed by his youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte), the Kingdom of Naples (ruled as king by his brother-in-law, Field Marshal Joachim Murat), and the principality of Westphalen. Former adversaries Prussia and Austria, as well as the Italian cities of Lucca and Piombio (ruled by brother-in-law Félix Baciocchi).
Battles with the Sixth Coalition
The sixth coalition included the kingdoms of the British Empire, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and the Republic of Bavaria (since 1813). The French side included France, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, the Confederation of the Rhine, Saxony, and the Republic of Bavaria (until 1813).
Napoleonic Wars in Russia
Main article: Napoleon Invades Russia(1812)
Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 in order to force the tsar to comply with the Continental System. On June 23, 1812, the huge French army of 690,000 men, of which 270,000 were French troops, crossed the Nemen River. Russia declared the Great Patriotic War and utilized the scorched earth policy. On September 7, 1812, the two sides clashed at the Battle of Borodino (a Moscow suburb), a bloody fight that forced Russia to flee. On September 14, 1812, French troops invaded Moscow, but Tsar Alexander I refused to compromise. Napoleon, who did not expect to win, was forced to retreat from Russia.
This operation in Russia cost 380,000 French casualties (including deaths from disease and cold as well as combat), more than 50,000 wounded, 80,000 deserters, and more than 100,000 captives. The French lost 200,000 horses and around 1,000 cannons in terms of equipment. The French had just approximately 80,000 troops left when they fled Russia after their defeat at Berezina on December 26–29, 1812. Furthermore, there was news in Paris at the time that General Claude François de Malet was organizing a coup, so Napoleon had to abandon the troops and rush back to France. The Russian side also suffered losses of 350,000 to 400,000 troops.
Then, on the Spanish front, an Anglo-Spanish coalition commanded by General Wellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Vitoria on June 21, 1813, forcing Joseph Bonaparte and his army to flee to France, effectively ending French control of the Iberian peninsula.
Napoleonic Wars in Germany
Prussia stepped in, seeing an opportunity to win against France. Napoleon re-formed an army of troops that had escaped from Russia and returned, adding a total of about 400,000 people. The Russian-Prussian alliance lost 40,000 troops in the Battle of Lützen on May 2, 1813, and the Battle of Bautzen on May 20 and 21, 1813. The armistice was signed on June 4, 1813, and it was effective until August 13, 1813. During this time, both sides attempted to fortify their forces. Austria was encouraged to join the coalition. The Confederacy formed two armies of over 800,000 troops, as well as a strategic reserve of approximately 350,000 men.
Napoleon gathered over 650,000 troops in Germany, of which only 250,000 were under direct command, 120,000 under Field Marshal Nicolas Oudinot, and 30,000 under Field Marshal Davout, with the remainder belonging to the Rhein, Saxony, and Bavaria Confederations. Murat's kingdom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais' kingdom of Italy had a combined force of around 100,000 men, with an additional 150,000 from Spain. The French had approximately 900,000 men in total, but the German soldiers in the French army were less competent in fighting and frequently defected to the Coalition.
Napoleon attacked and won the Battle of Dresden (August 25–26, 1813), despite the fact that the Coalition army outnumbered him. However, during the Battle of Leipzig (from October 16 to October 19) between 191,000 French troops and 450,000 Union troops (Austria, Kingdom of Prussia, Russian Empire, and Kingdom of Sweden), Napoleon was defeated and forced to withdraw.
Napoleonic Wars in France
The Coalition wished to put an end to 20 years of conflict by defeating Napoleon, whom they referred to as "the usurper." The Coalition force of 500,000 men invaded France, whereas Napoleon could only muster a small army of 70,000 men. The French army, on the other hand, fought vigorously against the divided Union army, especially at the engagements of Champaubert (February 10, 1814) between France and the Austro-Russian alliance, and Montmirail (February 11, 1814). The Battle of Mormant (February 17, 1814) was fought between France and the Austro-Russian Coalition, and the Battle of Montereau (February 18, 1814) was fought between France and the Russo-Württemberg Alliance.
Despite repeated defeats, the Coalition (Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia) signed the Treaty of Chaumont on March 8, 1814, and resolved to defeat Napoleon. Coalition troops stormed Paris on March 30, 1814, thanks to Field Marshal Marmont's cooperation (retreat, not fighting the Coalition ). Emperor Napoleon, on the other hand, hoped to replenish his 900,000 men in Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands with new recruits, but this plan did not come to fruition.
Napoleon abdicated on April 6, 1814, at Fontainebleau and was exiled to the island of Elba. The Coalition countries won the Napoleonic Wars, and France convened the Vienna Conference from October 1, 1814, to June 9, 1815, intending to restore European countries' boundaries to their pre-French Revolution states. On May 30, 1815, the Coalition and France signed the Treaty of Paris, which returned France to its pre-January 1, 1792 borders.
Battles with the Seventh Coalition
The war with the Seventh Coalition, which included the British Empire, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, the Netherlands, and a few small German states, was known as the Hundred Days and lasted from March 1, 1815 (when Napoleon returned to France) to June 18, 1815 (the day France lost the Battle of Waterloo).
Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, but he escaped and reclaimed power from King Louis XVIII of France. The Coalition declared Napoleon an outlaw and swiftly amassed an army of 700,000 men, with another million on the way, plus the backing of 200,000 garrisons. France possessed an army of 90,000 men when Napoleon returned. Napoleon summoned more veterans, totaling 280,000 warriors, and signed a proclamation mobilizing 2.5 million troops.
Napoleon led a 124,000-man army into Belgium in order to prevent the Coalition from gathering, expecting to drive the British out to sea and force Prussia to withdraw from the Coalition. The fast advance enabled Napoleon to fulfill his goal of surprising the enemy, prompting Prussia to flee in disorder on June 16, 1815, two days before the pivotal Battle of Waterloo. On the same day, British troops dispatched by Wellesley to relieve Prussian Field Marshal Blücher at the Battle of Quatre-Bras (near Brussels) were stopped by French Field Marshal Michel Ney.
Field Marshal Ney, on the other hand, was unable to relieve the besieged French positions. Napoleon led his reserve army north, where he met up with Ney to pursue Wellesley. Despite defeating the Prussian commander Johann von Thielmann in the Battle of Wavre (Belgium) on June 18–19, 1815, Napoleon sent Field Marshal Emmanuel de Grouchy to the right and prevented the Prussians from regrouping.
At the beginning of the decisive battle at Waterloo (Belgium) on June 18, 1815, Napoleon pushed his army to attack the Coalition forces in entrenched positions in this valley, but by the end of the day, the French were still unable to push the Coalition forces away. Hannover has been pushed out of its position. When the Prussians attacked the French right-wing the next day, Napoleon's scheme of dividing the Coalition troops entirely failed and forced their escape in disorder.
Returning to Paris three days after the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was compelled to resign for the second time on June 22, 1815, and was exiled by the Allies to the Atlantic island of Saint Helena to die.
What Were the Effects of the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars had far-reaching ramifications throughout the world, particularly in continental Europe:
- France is no longer the dominant power in Europe, like King Louis XIV of France.
- In many European countries, the introduction of the ideals and advances of the French Revolution (democracy, abolition of prerogatives of the clergy and nobility, abolition of torture, equality before the law, etc.) has left a lasting mark. Kings in Europe had a hard time re-establishing the pre-Revolutionary absolutist monarchy and were sometimes forced to adopt a number of reforms (e.g., the Napoleonic French Civil Code, long adopted by some countries) or affect the laws of certain countries.
- A new and powerful movement emerged: nationalism, which changed the course of European history, the force that killed the old feudal dynasties. The map of Europe was completely redrawn in the 100 years after these wars.
- The war in Spain destroyed the army (fleet and land) of this country, a situation aggravated by the revolutions occurring in the Spanish colonies in the Americas. By 1825, most of the Spanish colonies were either independent or incorporated into the United States (Florida, Louisiana), Great Britain (Trinidad), or Haiti (Saint Domingue).
- Great Britain became a world hegemonic power on land and at sea.
- The French occupation of the Netherlands (during the war) allowed France to occupy its colonies: Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Malacca, South Africa, and Guyana...
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