Napoleon was affectionately known as "the Little Corporal" by the soldiers he commanded at the front. Napoleon was a general of only 1 meter 57 (5 ft 2 in. ), the average height of a French citizen at the time; he was shorter than the generals under his command and his European contemporaries, but Napoleon was an energetic and very ambitious man; he was an outstanding ruler who controlled the entire country's political system, foreign policy, domestic affairs, and press. France. Napoleon enacted numerous beneficial reforms, including the establishment of a strong, effective central government and the revision and reorganization of the French legal system into a logical code of law. Many of Napoleon's major administrative improvements are still in use in the French government today.
Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France and established an empire that spanned Western and Central Europe. For 16 years, Emperor Napoleon ruled over all of Europe, skillfully employing capable subordinates and rewarding them with medals, ranks, property, and noble titles. Napoleon directly commanded large and complex battles, proving him to be a military genius, possibly the greatest in human history.
1- Napoleon Bonaparte's Childhood
Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica, shortly after the Genoa government ceded the island to France. Napoleon was the second son of Carlo Bonaparte and Letizia Ramolino and the fourth of eight children. Mr. Carlo is a lawyer of the Tuscan aristocracy who emigrated to the island of Corsica in the 16th century. Mr. Carlo married Mrs. Letizia, a lovely 14-year-old girl with a strong will. They had to raise eight children on a shoestring budget. When the French occupied the island of Corsica, some locals, led by Mr. Paoquale Paoli, rose up against the French government. Mr. Carlo Buonaparte had joined Mr. Paoli's party, but when the leader fled, he sided with the French. Carlo was appointed as assistant judge (assessor) of the judicial district of Ajaccio in 1771, thanks to the governor of the island of Corsica's patronage. Mr. Carlo applied for his two eldest sons, Joseph and Napoleon, to attend the High School d'Autun (College d'Autun) in 1778.
Originating on the island of Corsica and going by his Italian name, Napoleone Buonaparte, Napoleon was a foreign child with solid local features. He hated the French, who were considered oppressors. When he was nine years old, Napoleon was sent by his father to attend a military school in Brienne-le-Chateau, a small province near Troyes.
Napoleon was a sensitive, lonely boy who was frequently bullied by his classmates. The ruthlessness of his classmates drove Napoleon to fantasize about personal glory and military victory. Napoleon performed mediocrely in most subjects but excelled in mathematics. Napoleon was admitted to the Paris Military Academy in 1784 as a member of the Artillery Army. In February 1785, while Napoleon was studying in Paris, his father died of stomach cancer, leaving a poor family. Napoleon graduated from the Military Academy in September of that year with the rank of Second Lieutenant, placing 42nd out of 58 new officers. Napoleon later served in the Le Fère Artillery Regiment, which was based in Valence. This is a training facility for aspiring artillery officers. Napoleon continued to learn by reading numerous books on tactics and strategy, reading Voltaire and Rousseau's works, and practicing writing, which culminated in the "Lettres of Corsica" (Lettres sur la Corse) which describes his feelings for his birthplace. Napoleon returned to Corsica in September 1786 and did not rejoin the Artillery Regiment until June 1788. At this point, France was in turmoil due to political events, and the French Revolution was about to erupt. Napoleon believed that political change in France was unavoidable.
2- Period of the French Revolution
When French revolutionaries met in Paris in 1789 to establish a National Assembly and a constitutional monarchy, they allowed Pasquale Paoli to return to the island of Corsica, and Napoleon followed suit in September of that year. At home, Napoleon wanted to join Paoli's movement, but the leader of this local political movement did not trust the young Napoleon because his father, Carlo, was unfaithful to the cause of the locals' struggle. Due to his exclusion and disappointment, Napoleon returned to France and was appointed lieutenant in the 4th Artillery Regiment, stationed at Valence, in April 1791.
Napoleon joined the Jacobin Club, a radical political organization that initially advocated for a democratic republic. Napoleon was elected president of the club and frequently criticized aristocrats, bishops, and priests in his speeches.
Napoleon took a leave of absence in September 1791 and returned to the island of Corsica for three months, during which time he served in the island's local army (the Corsican National Guard). Napoleon's membership in the Jacobin club and radical political views strained his relationship with Mr. Paoli, a royalist.
Following the French Revolution and the execution of King Louis 16 in January 1793, Paoli declared Napoleon an outlaw in order to separate the island of Corsica from France. Members of the Buonaparte family were forced to flee the island and flee to France. Napoleon rejoined the French Army and was assigned to the city of Paris.
Napoleon had little chance of advancement under the Bourbon monarchy, but when the French Revolution reached its climax on August 10, 1792, and the monarchy was overthrown and a Republic was established, this was a very good opportunity, decisive for Napoleon's life and opened the way for Napoleon to rise to glory.
Most senior officers in the French army were still loyal to the King at the time, but Napoleon saw things differently. The French Republic is currently embroiled in a civil war as well as conflicts with neighboring countries. The Republic desperately needs capable and loyal officers to serve under the new regime.
Napoleon was promoted to captain in 1792 and served in Nice in June 1793. At the time, Napoleon published an article titled "Super de Beaucaire" in which he urged republicans to rally around the Jacobin group, which was becoming more and more radical. By the end of August 1793, the armies of the First Coalition had captured Marseille but were stopped at Toulon, the base of the royalists who were requesting Coalition army assistance.
During a battle at Toulon, Napoleon was wounded. Because of the revolutionary army's artillery at the suggestion of political commissar Antoine Saliceti, a family friend, he was asked to keep command of the artillery regiment, promoted to major in September, and participated in the siege of Toulon. Napoleon demonstrated his abilities as a talented general and a powerful leader in this location.
In December 1793, Napoleon ordered the cannons to be placed in a high position, towards the port of Toulon, and fired on the British ships, so the British fleet had to withdraw and the French Revolutionary army was victorious at the Battle of Toulon. Napoleon was promoted to Major General (Brigadier General) at the age of 24 as a result of the capture of this city. Augustin de Robespierre, the political commissar of the French Revolutionary Army, wrote a letter to his brother Maximilien Robespierre, then head of the French government and one of the leaders of the period of terror. In it, he praised the "superior merit" of the Republican Party's young officer, Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon was successful because he mastered a new military technique known as artillery.
Napoleon was appointed commander of the French army's artillery force stationed in Italy in February 1974. When Maximilien Robespierre was deposed on the 9th of Thermidor (July 27, 1794), Napoleon was arrested on counter-revolutionary charges because he was supported by Robespierre. Napoleon was released in September, but he was not reinstated as commander. Napoleon was offered the post of commander of the Western Artillery to fight counter-revolutionary forces in the Vendée in March of the following year, but he declined because he saw no prospects. Napoleon went back to Paris.
Life in Paris was not easy for Napoleon, especially when he was romantically involved with Desirée Clary. She was the daughter of a wealthy Marseille merchant and sister-in-law of Julie, who had married Napoleon's brother Joseph. Napoleon could not apply for any post because many politicians of the time were afraid of his association with the "Montagnard" group, the progressive figures of the National Convention, and they were also afraid of his ambitions. Because his talent was not being used, Napoleon planned to go far away to serve in the reform of the army of the Turkish king.
3- Period of the Directory of Consuls
While Napoleon was in Paris in May 1795, the National Convention put a new constitution to a vote in the third year of the First Republic. The National Convention also proposed legislation that would re-elect two-thirds of the National Convention's staff to new legislative conventions. At that time, royalists seeking to restore the monarchy incited riots in Paris, making the referendum impossible. At the time, Viscount Paul de Barras, who had been entrusted with powers by the National Convention, did not trust the military commander of the Ministry of the Interior and had appointed Napoleon as deputy commander after learning of Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Toulon.
On the 13th day of the fourth month of Vendemaire, that is, October 5, 1795, when the crowd rallied in front of the Tuileries Palace, Napoleon ordered cannons to be placed and shot directly at the protesters. Hundreds of people died and were injured. The streets of Paris soon became quiet again. Napoleon saved the National Convention and the Republic, and then became commander of the army of the Ministry of the Interior, thereby knowing all the political developments in the city of Paris. Napoleon was promoted to Lieutenant General and also served as military advisor to the new government, as the Directory of Consuls, with Paul de Barras as one of the five people who governed this Council. It was during this time that Napoleon became acquainted with the widow of General Alexandre de Beauharnais, a man who had died on the scaffold during the time of terror. This widow, six years older than Napoleon, was Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, a native of the West Indies island of Martinique, with two children and many love affairs with several notables.
Napoleon demonstrated his loyalty to the Consul Council by disbanding a group of Communists led by Francois Babeuf and Filippo Buonarroti, an Italian Napoleon met on the island of Corsica.
Napoleon was appointed Commander of the French Army in Italy in March 1796. While the larger French armies crossed through Germany to attack Vienna, Austria's capital, the Consul planned for Napoleon to prevent the Austrian army from entering Italy. Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais and left for Italy two days later to take up his duties. When he arrived at the French Army Headquarters in Nice, he discovered that the army, which was supposed to have 43,000 men, had only 30,000 men! They were both lacking in food and supplies, ill-equipped, and underpaid. On March 28, 1796, Napoleon told the army: "Soldiers, you have nothing in your hands, you are short of food." The rich provinces and great cities will be in your power. In those places, you will find honor, glory, and fortune. Soldiers of Italy, you must have courage and determination.
The campaign in Italy, Napoleon defeated the Austrian army, separated it from the Sardinian army, and entered Turin on April 12, 1796. Victor Amadeus III, King of Sardinia, was forced to sign a truce. The Treaty of Peace was signed in Paris on May 15, and Nice and Savoy, which had been occupied by the French since 1762, were merged into France. At the time, some Italian patriots, led by Buonarroti, were intending to convert Italy to a republic, but he was arrested along with Babeuf for resisting the Consul. Faced with Italy's political situation, Napoleon established a republic in Lombardy while keeping a close eye on the Italian leaders. Napoleon established the Cisalpine Republic in October 1796 by uniting Modena and Reggio nell' Emilia with the occupied papal lands of Bologna and Ferrara.
When Napoleon's French forces besieged Mantua, Austrian armies crossed the Alps four times to save the city, but the Austrians were defeated by Napoleon. The Austrians surrendered at Rivoli in January 1797, and Mantua fell. Napoleon then dispatched his army to Vienna. The Austrians requested an armistice when the French army was 100 kilometers from the Austrian capital. Austria agreed to cede the southern Netherlands to France and recognize the Lombardy Republic as French territory. Napoleon oversaw the establishment of republican regimes in northern Italy, including the Ligurian Republic (Genoa) and the Cisalpine Republic. At the time, some Italian patriots hoped that these political developments would lead to the establishment of an Italian republic modeled after France.
Napoleon's campaigns in Italy demonstrated his military prowess. In Italy, Napoleon developed his idea into a highly successful military strategy that served as the foundation for the subsequent great battles. Napoleon used his keen mind to observe the terrain, identifying details that would impede the deployment. He quickly predicted the enemy's plans. Napoleon had prepared a large force at the start of the battle. He observed the battlefield and detected the weakest point of the enemy force, concentrated his military strength on that point, divided the enemy force, and attacked immediately at the decisive moment, shocking the enemy like a storm.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a famous general with a unique ability to determine the best time to attack. Napoleon used this tactic to defeat a five-times-larger army in 11 days in 1796. Napoleon strictly adhered to the "divide and conquer" principle.
Napoleon also showed a genius for psychology and propaganda. He told the troops: "In two weeks, you have achieved six victories. You took 15,000 prisoners. You have killed or wounded 10,000 enemies. Lacking everything, you have completed all the missions. You have won without cannons, crossed rivers without bridges, marched without shoes, stationed without brandy, and often lived without bread. Only the armies of the Republic, only the soldiers of Liberty, will be able to endure the privations that you are suffering. All of you are eager to bring glory to the French people and to humble the arrogant kings who dare to chain us. Go back to your villages and say proudly, "I'm in the army to conquer Italy."
The royalists won elections in France in the spring of 1797. Napoleon advised the Consul to obstruct them and, if necessary, use force. In July of that year, there was a failed coup against the royalists. As a result, Napoleon dispatched General Pierre Augereau to Paris. General Augereau's coup d'etat on September 18, 1797 (September 4, 1797) was successful, removing royalists from the government and legislative assemblies at the same time, which increased Napoleon's prestige.
4 - The Campaign in Egypt
After defeating Austria and returning to Paris, Napoleon had great ambitions, but he felt that he did not have enough influence over the central government. Except for England, all countries on the European continent had to submit to France at the time.
The Consul wanted to make an amphibious landing in England at the end of 1797, so he appointed Napoleon to lead the expedition across the English Channel. Following a brief inspection in February 1798, Napoleon declared that an invasion of England would be possible only once France had mastered the seas, and he proposed blocking England's resources by occupying Egypt and thus threatening the road to India. Napoleon wished to emulate Alexander the Great's conquest by occupying Egypt, India, the Middle East, and the Far East.
Mr. Talleyrand, Secretary of State, supported Napoleon's proposal, which was immediately approved by the leaders of the Consular Council. They were also attempting to take the ambitious young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, out of sight.
Napoleon launched an expedition to Egypt with 38,000 troops in May 1798. The victories began: the fortress of Malta, held by the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, fell on June 10, 1798, and the Egyptian city of Alexandria surrendered on July 1. Napoleon defeated Egypt's rulers, the Mamelukes, in a battle of the Pyramids near Cairo. The Nile Delta was quickly conquered after that. However, on August 1, 1798, the French fleet anchored in Abu Qir Bay was completely destroyed in the naval battle known as "the Battle of the Nile" by Admiral Horatio Nelson's British fleet. The French army was trapped in the territory they just conquered, and reinforcements and supplies were cut off.
Simultaneously, Napoleon tried to apply European political institutions, governance, and technology to Egypt. Turkey, Egypt's protectorate, allied with Britain and Russia, declared war on France in September of that year. In February 1799, Napoleon sent troops through Syria to the fortress of Acre in order to prevent a Turkish attack on Egypt and possibly return to France via the Anatolian route (Akko, Israel), and the French army was defeated there. Napoleon was forced to retreat to Egypt. He defeated 10,000 Turkish troops in July 1799 at Abu Qir, near the Gulf of Abu Qir.
The Battle of the Nile showed the European powers that Napoleon Bonaparte was not invincible. So Britain, Austria, Russia, and Turkey forged a new military coalition against France. In the spring of 1799, the French army suffered several defeats in Italy and had to withdraw from much of the Italian peninsula.
These defeats rocked France. On June 18, 1799, a coup d'état removed moderate members of the Consul Council and replaced them with extremist Jacobin party members. However, the political situation remains in upheaval. Emmanuel Sieyès, one of the Consul's leaders, was convinced that only a military dictatorship could prevent the monarchy from being restored. "I'm looking for a sword," Mr. Sieyès declared. Napoleon was ordered to return to France by the Consul Council.
Napoleon took advantage of the political situation in France at the time. The restoration of the Jacobin party caused moderates to fear a new era of terrorism, and they hoped for a strong government to put a stop to this radicalism. The Consul Council also established four vassal republics at this time: the Batavian (Netherlands), Helvetian (Switzerland), Roman (Roman), and Parthenopean (Naples).
The leaders of Austria, or the Hapsburg family, were thus very concerned about the French influence in the former Austrian lands of Italy, and Tsar Paul I (reigned 1796–1801) in particular feared Napoleon. Russia's interests in the Mediterranean are jeopardized. Because the new French Empire threw Europe's political balance off-kilter, Britain, Austria, and Russia formed a second military coalition. In 1799, the Russian army led by General Alexander Suvorov (1729–1800) defeated the French army repeatedly, and General Suvorov became a European hero. The French were driven out of Italian territory in August 1799, and most of the French republics collapsed. At the time, French territory was under threat of invasion. Many counter-revolutionary plots rise. The Republican regime is under threat. In August 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte boarded a ship, secretly returned to France, and entrusted the command of the expedition to General Jean Kleber.
5 - The First Consul of France
Napoleon and some close confidants left Egypt in two small ships on August 22, 1799, and fortunately returned to France safely, avoiding the British Navy's blockade. On October 14, of that year, Napoleon arrived in Paris. The news of Napoleon's victory at Abu Qir made the French people joyfully welcome his return. Simultaneously, the French army won major victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland, preventing an invasion of France and the defeat of counter-revolutionary forces in the country. The French Republic had been saved, but Sieyès was still determined to carry out the old plan: Napoleon had come to him.
At the end of October 1799, Sieyès and Napoleon staged a coup on November 9-10, 1799, on days 18 and 19 of Brumaire, the 8th year of the Revolutionary Calendar. The outcome of the coup. The legislative assemblies were dissolved, the opposition deputies were expelled, and a new government with three consuls, Napoleon, Sieyès, and Pierre Robert Ducos, was established. The French people approved a new constitution in which Napoleon was elected "first consul" and the other two consuls were only advisors to Napoleon. After ten years of complicated revolution, the French people desired a strong leader, so that Napoleon could rule France as a dictator at this time. Napoleon Bonaparte ruled over the entire empire.
Napoleon was only 30 years old when he became "First Consul," A short and thin man with short hair, he was nicknamed "le petit tondu" (a small young man with short hair). The French people did not know Napoleon personally, so they put their faith in a figure who always won. Napoleon was a clever politician who hid two defeats at the Battle of the Nile and the fortress of Acre. The French people remember the Campo Formio Peace, which brought France honor. The French people expected Napoleon to end the corrupt and unstable Consulate system, consolidate the Revolution's political and social achievements, and save peace in the country.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a brilliant strategist. He was well-versed in history, law, and military science. He worked tirelessly, made quick decisions, and had unlimited ambitions. Napoleon was known as the "Man of the French Revolution" because he rose to the nation's most powerful position as a result of the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte was a man of the nineteenth century, the true son of Voltaire, and the most enlightened despot of totalitarian dictators: he did not believe in popular sovereignty, parliamentary struggles, or popular will. Napoleon trusted reasoning over reason, arguing that wills, no matter how enlightened or determined, required the support of bayonets. Napoleon despised public opinion and believed that he could guide or distort it to his will. Napoleon Bonaparte was called the most "civilian" of generals by the French people, but he remained a soldier forever.
Since becoming First Consul, Napoleon has imposed a military dictatorship on the entire country of France, and the essence of this characteristic can be found in the Constitution of the Eighth Year (4 Nivose, December 25, 1799). Sieyes was drafted. This Constitution made no mention of the French Revolution's "liberty, equality, and fraternity" principles, did not guarantee "human rights," and granted the First Consul unlimited power. In the name of this Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte could appoint ministers, magistrates, generals, National Council staff, civil servants, and even legislative assembly officers who, in theory, had to be elected by universal suffrage. The Eighth-Year Constitution was approved in a referendum in February 1800.
Napoleon's reform programs got underway. The government was led by the Council of State, which was composed of specialists who formed a central cabinet chaired by Napoleon and accountable only to Napoleon. Administrative upheavals during the Revolutionary War were revised. The central government delegated control to a group of ministries, including the Ministry of Finance, which was in charge of taxes, and the Ministry of the Interior, which was in charge of national security. The territory is divided into numerous provinces (departments), cantons (cantons), and villages (communes), but all administrative personnel is appointed by the central government and report to the Paris government. The centralization of finance was also made possible by the establishment of the Bank of France, whose 200 main shareholders, making up the Board of Directors, were bourgeois intellectuals of the city of Paris.
The Legion of Honor has the highest ranking in the medal system. The Code Napoleon, instead of the different laws of the different provinces of France, also had a significant impact on the judicial branch, creating a unified legal system based on reason rather than pre-existing rules.
This Act recognized all people as equal before the law, regardless of rank or property, but prioritized national interests over individual interests. The Napoleonic Code served as a model for legal reformers all over the world. Judges are no longer elected from localities, as they were during the Revolution, but are instead appointed by the central government. The police force has also been strengthened. Education was reformed into a major public service, secondary education became paramilitary, and faculty at universities were reorganized. Napoleon also established the University of France, but primary education remained a challenge.
Even though he was not personally interested in religious beliefs, Napoleon agreed with Voltaire that people needed religion. In March 1800, Pope Pius VII signed a treaty with Napoleon recognizing the French Republic and accepting the state's right to appoint the clergy.
Consul General Napoleon was most interested in the military organization: conscription was enforced, but alternative conscription was also accepted, and new soldiers were mixed with experienced soldiers. Every soldier has the opportunity to advance to the highest ranks. Saint Cyr Military Academy was founded, and it welcomed young people from bourgeois families who wanted to pursue military careers. Furthermore, the former Convention's Polytechnic University has been militarized to train artillery and engineering officers.
Napoleon Bonaparte incorporated the entirety of France under central government control, leaving a lasting legacy. Napoleon saw himself as the heir to the French Revolution and its protector. He stabilized the economy, reorganized the administration and society, and instituted programs to build roads and canals for the middle class. Direct and indirect taxes restore national income, and as a result, the "franc" has a stable value.
The peasants' land was secured, and the new law abolished the feudal taxes that people had to pay. Because of the need for the military and to improve society, the working class also had jobs. Napoleon also guaranteed all citizens equal rights before the law, equal opportunities for advancement, the abolition of cruel punishments, and the opening of education to the intelligent and studious. And, in front of the entire country, Napoleon Bonaparte promised not only national security but also territorial expansion and military glory.
Napoleon Bonaparte, the First Consul, was not content with governing France alone; he also desired to extend French influence throughout other European countries. Napoleon trained his army to attack Austria in the winter of 1799 and the spring of 1800 because Russia had withdrawn from the anti-French coalition by this time. Napoleon considered the Swiss Confederation a strategic location because it allowed him to attack the flanks of Austrian armies stationed in Germany or Italy. His previous experience led him to Italy. Napoleon leads his army across St. Bernard's Pass before the snow melts, encircling the Austrian army at Genoa.
The battle of Marengo gave the French control of the Po River valley all the way to the Adige, and another French army defeated the Austrian army in Germany in December 1800. In February 1801, Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Luneville, which granted France the right to occupy the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees.
By this point, England was the only country standing up to Napoleon. Peace talks between the United Kingdom and France began in London in October 1801, and the Treaty of Amiens was signed on March 27, 1802. Europe's peace has been restored. The prestige of First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte skyrocketed.
In 1802, Napoleon advised legislators that for a sufficient factor of stability, the 10-year limit of the First Consul should be removed. In May 1802, it was decided to allow the French people to vote on whether Napoleon Bonaparte should be Consul for life. Napoleon was elected Consul "for life" in August of that year, with the power to appoint his successor and amend the Constitution at any time.
At the start of the nineteenth century, England wanted to overthrow Napoleon, so they assisted the French royalists in continuing to carry out rebellions and conspiracies. When a conspiracy aided by the British was discovered in 1804, Napoleon argued that a strong reaction was required to frighten opponents. The French police believed that the plot's leader was the young Marquis d'Enghien, a symbol of the Bourbon family who lived near the German border. The young marquis was then kidnapped in neutral territory, brought back to Vincennes, tried, and shot dead, with the approval of Talleyrand and Sheriff Joseph Fouché. This act increased Mr. Fouché's prestige while also fueling the old aristocrats' discontent and resistance.
Chief Fouché advised Napoleon that, in order to avoid subversive plots, he should change the "Lifetime Consul" regime to an "Empire" regime with inheritance and so on. As a result, opponents no longer hope to change the regime through assassination. On May 28, 1804, the Empire was proclaimed, though little had changed in the way France's government was organized, aside from some resemblance to the old empire. Napoleon desired to be ordained by the Pope, as the coronation would leave a positive impression on the people of France and other countries and would be more official than previous French kings. Pope Pius VII also agreed to attend the coronation ceremony in Paris.
Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte received the crown from Pope Pius IX on December 2, 1804, in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, and, following Charlemagne's example, placed it on his own head. Napoleon Bonaparte has the right to pass the throne to his descendants as "Emperor of France" from now on. The Bonaparte family took on aristocratic titles. The restoration of the monarchy was a slap in the face to royalists and French Revolution veterans. Napoleon increased his propaganda work to quell the protests, and the press was strictly censored. Napoleon was able to wage wars for years without regard for French public opinion under this monarchical dictatorship. In Italy, Napoleon Bonaparte had ruled the Cisalpine Republic since its founding, so in March 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed King of Italy and ascended to the throne in May of that year. there in Milan.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a brilliant political strategist. He used the referendum method whenever he wanted to change the Constitution in an undemocratic direction, and the results were very favorable to Napoleon: the vote of 1799–1800 approved Napoleon and the Constitution of the Year. The 8th had 3,011,107 votes in favor and 1,562 votes against; in 1803, there were 3,568,885 votes in favor of allowing Napoleon to be Consul for life compared to 8,357 votes against; and the vote in favor of the Empire resulted in 3,572,329 votes in favor and 2,579 votes against. To be sure, political pressures on French voters at the time influenced the outcome, but the vast majority of the French population supported Napoleon.
Napoleon's military triumphs appealed to rising nationalists, and domestic economic stabilization policies made people no longer want revolutionary changes. Napoleon changed some old revolutionary policies and added reforms based on the advice of new thinkers. Public trust in France increased as a result of policy improvements, as did the power.
People with opposing political views in France were subject to a centralized imperial administration, just as they were during King Louis 14's reign. Napoleon was an enlightened autocrat. Napoleon was only concerned with the abilities of his followers, whether Jacobins or emigrants. This empire was built on a broad political base. Napoleon bestowed titles on the righteous.
There were dozens of marquis and hundreds of earls and dukes as a result of the empire's re-establishment. Napoleon promoted outstanding generals and officers to the rank of "marshal" and bestowed the Legion of Honor upon them, along with an annual allowance. Napoleon considered that "aristocracy always exists," and when it was abolished, it was replaced by wealthy and powerful middle-class families. As a result, the heads of the French middle class at the time became royal aristocrats.
6- Napoleon and the Battles 1800-1807
For many French people, Napoleon Bonaparte was the Man of Destiny, France's greatest ruler. For the rest of Europe, however, Napoleon was a national enemy. Napoleon's military conquests many lands under French control, earning him the moniker "the Sinister Man on Horseback," a dictator whose ambitions were never satisfied. Other European nations gradually shook Napoleon Bonaparte's empire.
Tsar Paul of Russia founded the Baltic League of Armed Neutrality in 1800, uniting Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and Russia against England. Tsar Paul also desired to work with France to drive the British out of India. But when Tsar Paul was assassinated, he was succeeded by Tsar Alexander I. Also in the spring of 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte led his army across the Alps, defeating the Austrian army in Italy, and through the Treaty of Luneville (1801), Austria was forced to recognize Italy as French territory and allow Napoleon to redraw the map of Germany.
Only England faced France after the Treaty of Luneville. Admiral Nelson's British fleet drove the French out of Egypt and took possession of the Dutch and Spanish colonies. The Peace Treaty of Amiens was signed in 1802, providing only a one-year armistice. Later, Napoleon planned to establish a colonial empire in Haiti and the North American territory of Louisiana, which Spain ceded to France in 1800.
When the Convention abolished slavery in Haiti, the local black majority rejoiced, but when the Consuls restored slavery, Francois Toussaint L'Ouverture (c. 1744–1803) and Jean Jacques Dessalines (c. 1758–1806) led revolts against the French. Furthermore, yellow fever wreaked havoc on the French expeditionary army, forcing Napoleon to abandon his plan to conquer America. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States for 80 million francs in 1803.
From 1803 to 1805, only England was the land that Napoleon Bonaparte had to conquer and to do that, the French had to land in England. To defeat Napoleon, the British needed to form a coalition on the European continent. At this point, Napoleon began planning a large-scale invasion of England. While the French Army was concentrated at Boulogne, nearly 2,000 French ships were returned to the ports located between the military port of Brest and the city of Antwerp. The difficulty remains in crossing the Channel, which requires the French to control the sea.
Because the French Navy was still inferior to the British Navy, the French fleet aligned itself with the Spanish Navy; however, these two fleets could only defeat one British fleet. In December 1804, the French and Spanish fleets would congregate in the Antilles in order to lure the British fleet there and destroy it, and then the battle in the Channel Sea would be a chance to win. According to the plan, the French fleet led by Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve arrived in the Antilles but did not see the Spanish fleet, so the French fleet was pursued by Admiral Nelson's fleet.
Admiral De Villeneuve was forced to send the convoy to Europe, where it took refuge in the Spanish port of Cadiz in July 1805 while being besieged by the British fleet. Considered a coward by Napoleon, De Villeneuve was forced to break the siege. Although with the support of a Spanish fleet, the French fleet was attacked by the British Navy outside the port of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805. Despite the fact that Admiral Nelson was killed in this naval battle, the French and Spanish fleets were completely destroyed. The British Navy's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar was decisive, putting an end to Napoleon's invasion of England and giving the British control of the sea.
England, Austria, and Russia formed a Third Coalition against France before the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon wanted to redraw the map of Germany by eliminating hundreds of cities and small kingdoms in order to create southern countries under French rule, thanks to Prime Minister William Pitt's advocacy.
Napoleon Bonaparte ordered the transfer of the Great Army from Boulogne across the Danube on July 24, 1805, and in the battle of Ulm that October, Napoleon took 30,000 Austrian prisoners. The Austrian Marquis Ferdinand escaped with a small cavalry force. Napoleon arrived in Vienna on November 13. On December 2, 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte sent reinforcements discreetly and quickly to surprise the Austro-Russian coalition at Austerlitz, causing the enemy to lose 27,000 men compared to 9,000 French casualties. After this famous battle of Austerlitz, on the European continent, the words Napoleon spread: "I have defeated the armies of Russia and Austria led by two Emperors.".
Napoleon Bonaparte forced Habsburg Emperor Francis I to sign the Treaty of Pressburg within a month. The treaty forced Austria to abdicate all influence in Italy, cede the two regions of Venetia and Dalmatia to Napoleon, and agree to allow the French to rule Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden. Later, the throne of the Bourbons in the kingdom of Naples was passed to Napoleon's brother, Joseph. The Rhine Confederation, which included all of western Germany, was formed in July 1806 and placed under French protectorate.
In September 1806, Prussia declared war on France. Napoleon defeated the Prussian armies at Jena and Auerstadt on October 14, that year. Napoleon met Countess Marie Walewska while marching into Warsaw in 1807. The countess was a patriotic Pole, she desired to marry Napoleon and reestablish the Polish state. Napoleon and Mrs. Walewska had a child.
Thus, on the European continent, there is only one country that opposes Napoleon: Russia. The Russian army held out against Napoleon's army at Eylau in February 1807, but had to flee after the Battle of Friedland in June of that year.
Tsar Alexander I of Russia was tired and depressed after the defeats despite his alliance with England. He met Napoleon on a raft on the Niemen River at Tilsit, the bordering between Russia and East Prussia. The two emperors of France and Russia signed an agreement to divide Europe in half and create the Grand Duchy of Warsaw from the Polish provinces that had been separated from Prussia. Napoleon assigned this territory to a French ally, the King of Saxony. Napoleon controlled the territory of Prussia west of the Elbe River, and he had the authority to station troops on Prussian territory and limit its army to 42,000 men.
In the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon Bonaparte won a series of military victories thanks to his leadership abilities, talented generals, and the heroic fighting spirit of the soldiers under him, as well as the opposite's mistakes and negligence. The French army was now Europe's most feared and powerful force. The military service brings in approximately 85,000 new recruits each year, and recruits were added to an experienced force to meet the needs of the battlefield. Under Napoleon, officers were promoted based on ability rather than seniority or power, and commanders were more concerned with soldier morale than with strict discipline. As for deciding the battle, Napoleon Bonaparte only gave the order to attack when the French forces were stronger than or equal to the enemy forces, and at the time of the attack used the unexpected element such in the battle of Austerlitz.
The French army appeared invincible at the start of the nineteenth century, but it still had flaws. The medical service at the front was inadequate, resulting in many soldiers dying from disease and wounds that were not properly cared for. Soldiers' pay was low and irregular, supplies were erratic, and men and horses were forced to fend for themselves on occupied lands to save costs and avoid relying on supply convoys.
Europe was to be divided into three parts: the French Empire, which includes France and the lands annexed since 1789; the vassal states of France, which include Napoleon's relatives, and the countries forced to follow France by defeat, such as Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The rest were outside the French system of rule and included England, Sweden, and Turkey. Napoleon. In 1810, the Swedish people asked Count Bernadotte, a field marshal under Napoleon, to be their king, succeeding the childless king on the throne. Later, Marshall Bernadotte laid out Swedish policies against Napoleon.
In central Europe, Napoleon enacted laws to dissolve several German vassal states, and in 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. Francis I of the Habsburg family, now Emperor of Austria, was the last Holy Roman Emperor. Napoleon established the Rhine Confederation, which included lands outside of Prussia and Austria.
Napoleon Bonaparte's French empire grew by the year, and Napoleon did not hesitate to appoint his family members to the thrones of countries all over Europe. In 1806, his younger brother Louis Napoleon was crowned King of the Netherlands. His older brother, Joseph Napoleon, was appointed King of Spain in 1808 after two years as King of Naples. His younger brother, Jerome was crowned King of Westphalia in 1807. forget. Field Marshal Joachim Murat, his brother-in-law, took over the throne in Naples in 1808. In 1809, another sister, Elisa, whose husband was Prince Lucca, was appointed Countess of Tuscany. Eugène de Beauharnais, Beauharnais' stepson, was also appointed Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy.
Napoleon Bonaparte also thought of his heir. After 15 years of childless marriage, Napoleon divorced Josephine and married Princess Marie Louise, daughter of King Francis I of the Habsburg family, in 1810. This Marie Louise had a son with Napoleon, dubbed "the King of Rome," but this child never became king of any country.
7- Fall of the French Empire
The "Continental System" reflected Napoleon's imperialism. This was a program to run the entire European economy with objectives of political, economic, and military, a policy of developing France's exports while crippling the British economy. Denmark, Norway, Prussia, and the Austrian Empire were all under French control, and Napoleon Bonaparte ruled over 42 million people. England, Russia, Sweden, and Turkey were all outside of Emperor Napoleon's sphere of influence. Napoleon signed the Berlin Act of 1806, which prohibited all trade with the British Isles and ordered the seizure of all British ships, as well as the confiscation of British property and goods, in order to destroy Britain. Britain retaliated by requiring neutral ships to pay duty in British ports before passing through French territory.
In December 1807, Napoleon's law of Milan ordered the arrest of all neutral ships in accordance with British policy, putting neutral countries in the crosshairs. As a result, Napoleon's two acts stymied a continental European system. The "France first" policy has been a colossal failure. Only a few French industries benefited from the "Continental System," such as the prohibition on sugar imports from the West Indies, which gave rise to sugar beets. On the other hand, France's foreign trade with other countries has collapsed. Bordeaux and its ports on the Mediterranean Sea became desolate, and raw materials like cotton became scarce. Unemployment, bankruptcy, and smuggling increased, especially in the Netherlands, and the value of France's exports to overseas markets fell by more than a third between 1805 and 1813.
The Continental System did not collapse Britain, despite the fact that the British people had suffered many deprivations: food imports fell, prices rose, and the currency supply was insufficient to meet demand. However, Britain overcame the difficulties through economic reforms, the superiority of the Navy and merchant ships, new markets in the Americas, the Ottoman Empire, and Asia, as well as through smuggling activities into mainland Europe. At the time, Napoleon's France lacked a strong navy capable of apprehending smugglers as well as honest officers operating the ports. Meanwhile, the French army was in desperate need of goods produced by British factories, such as leather and cloth armor.
Napoleon's Continental System had disastrous political, economic, and military consequences when he applied his policies on Portugal and Spain in 1807. Following the French Revolution, democratic ideas spread throughout Europe, causing Europeans to gradually rise up against Napoleon's dominance.
Napoleon deposed the Bourbons of Spain and installed his brother Joseph as king in 1808. The imposition of an unfamiliar monarchy and the Continental System on Spain, as well as the abolition of the prerogatives of the local aristocracy and clergy, were all violations of Spanish customs, practices, and pride. As a result, on May 2, 1808 in Madrid, a rebellion broke out.
The Spanish people's revolt in Madrid was brutally put down, but it also started the Peninsular War, named after the Iberian peninsula. Spanish guerrilla forces ambushed the French army and poisoned wells, among other things. British troops led by Sir Arthur Wellesley (1769–1852), who later became the Marquis of Wellington, also supported the Spanish guerrillas. Napoleon deployed over 300,000 troops into the Spanish campaign, but when the French invaded Russia in 1812, the Spanish guerrillas won. In 1813, King Joseph Napoleon was forced to leave Madrid permanently, and the Marquis of Wellington liberated Spain and dispatched his army to the south of France.
In the east of France, the national spirit of the Prussians was high. Between 1812 and 1815, brothers Jacob (1785–1863) and Wilhelm Grimm (1786–1859) wrote fairy tales, demonstrating the superiority of the German language. Along with the prophets who foretold the German Nation, philosopher J.G. Fichte (1762–1814) began to lay the groundwork for the theories of the New German Nation. Fichte argued in "Addresses to the German People" (1807–08) that German was the source of language (Ursprache) and the German people belonged to the oldest and moral nation (Urvolk). As a result, the reaction to French oppression began with German intellectuals and the elite. Later, generals and statesmen were likely to take over the rule of Prussia, the forerunner of later Germany. In Prussia, General Gerhard von Scharnhorst (1755-1813) led the senior officers, reorganizing the army to be more efficient and according to more democratic principles. The 42,000-man limit imposed by Napoleon on Prussia was covered by Prussian officers by training and organizing recruits so that by 1813, Prussia had more than 150,000 soldiers ready for battle.
Count Heindrich Stein (1757–1831), an enlightened Rhineland nobleman, advised on administrative and social reforms in Prussia at the same time as the military reforms. As a result of the October 1807 act, the provinces and cities gained more autonomy, Jews gained more rights, and serfdom was abolished. German nationalism grew stronger.
Following the meeting of Tsar Alexander and Napoleon at Tilsit in 1807, the actions of the French caused the Russian Emperor to doubt Napoleon Bonaparte's sincerity. When the French army occupied Austria in 1809, the Russian Balkans were threatened, and the annexation of Galicia into the marquisate of Warsaw threatened the Russian portion of Poland. Furthermore, the French put pressure on the Russians to adopt the Continental System. The meeting between the Tsar and Napoleon in Erfurt, Germany, in 1808 did not result in an agreement between France and Russia, and Oldenburg was annexed to the French sphere of influence, ruled by a marquis who was his brother-in-law. All of these events contributed to the reason why Napoleon invaded of Russia in 1812.
Napoleon Bonaparte sent troops into Poland in the spring of 1812, threatening Russia's borders. Following the breakdown of the compromises, Napoleon's Great Army of 453,000 men crossed the Niemen River into Russia. The Russian army withdrew, applying the policy of scorched earth. The winter in Russia was brutal. The more the Russian army retreated, the more the French army became trapped in the vast snowy land with living conditions that Napoleon had never known. The French supply system was too far away, and the Russian villages had been burned down before the French arrived, making it hard for the soldiers and horses to find common food. One of Napoleon's bodyguards had to record that: "not a single inhabitant could be found, not a single prisoner was taken. We are in the center of uninhabited Russia and we are like a ship without a dock, in the middle of a vast ocean, not knowing what will happen around us."
General Mikhail I. Kutuzov (1745-1813), Commander of the Russian Forces, organized a battle against the French at Borodino on September 7, 1812. The battle of Borodino was bloody, and there was nothing in it. Napoleon's to win a quick victory strategy could not to perform. Napoleon entered Moscow a week later, which had been reduced to ruins and fires after the Russians withdrew. Tsar Alexander flatly refused to bargain. Napoleon forced to withdrawal of French troops. In Russia, winter has arrived early. Due to a lack of food, clothing, and medical facilities, French forces suffered significant losses. They were constantly harassed and attacked by Russian guerrillas.
After the withdrawal across the Berezina River in November, Napoleon's main force was reduced to less than 20,000 hungry and ragged soldiers. Most of the French army died of hunger, cold, and disease, and a large number were taken prisoner. At this time, the Russian generals also feared that Napoleon would free the serfs so that they could rise up against the landlords, but these impoverished peasants joined the guerilla armies, raiding the French. When the French forces were retreating, the Russian Commander General Kutuzov wanted to let Russia's allies continue to fight the French army, but the Tsar ordered the Russian army to pursue the French army across the border of Russia.
The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in Russia excited European nations. Protests were held in Germany against France. Conscripts from Germany who had been drafted to serve in the French army deserted and joined the opposing army. Austrian troops also withdrew and were hostile to the French, and the people of Italy rose up in protest. During the October 23, 1812 coup in Paris, it was announced that Napoleon had been killed in battle in Russia. All of these factors contributed to Napoleon Bonaparte's hasty retreat back to France before the Great Army. During Napoleon's invasion of Russia, nearly 500,000 soldiers were killed, deserted, or taken prisoner.
Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris on the 18th of December, admitting defeat in the 29th Bulletin. However, the French people backed Napoleon. Napoleon reorganized new armies and consolidated the dictatorship once more.
Since 1813, people in various parts of Europe have rebelled against the French for their freedom, just as the French fought for their freedom in 1792 and 1793, and the excitement of the French people has faded. The French people no longer supported Emperor Napoleon's conquest ideal.
Following his withdrawal from Russia, Napoleon Bonaparte faced a new military coalition comprised of the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden. Napoleon defeated the Russian and Prussian armies in the battles of Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden in April 1812. However, the Coalition's force was outnumbered, and Napoleon's Great Army desperately needed reinforcement but was unable to provide it. A conference of coalition countries against France was held in Prague, mediated by Austria, and the solution proposed by Foreign Minister Metternich was for the French Empire to withdraw to its old natural borders, the territory it controlled most of the time. The duchy of Warsaw and the Rhine Confederacy had to be dissolved, and Prussia regained its 1805 borders. In this situation, Napoleon made the mistake of hesitating for too long. The above-mentioned conference ended on August 10, before the text of Napoleon's reply arrived. Austria declared war.
England was the first country in the war against Napoleon to defeat the French at the Battle of Trafalgar and break the Continental System on the economic front. Then there were Napoleon's defeats in Spain and Russia. The French army is becoming increasingly ineffective. German draftees gradually deserted, joining the anti-French coalition. Napoleon attempted to rebuild a new army but was unable to compensate for Russian-caused equipment damage.
The "Battle of Leipzig," also known as "the Battle of the Nations," was Napoleon Bonaparte's most crushing defeat. It took place on October 16–19, 1813, and the Grand Army was smashed to smithereens. Following their defeats in June, the French troops in Spain were forced to withdraw, and the British army attacked the French in the northern Pyrenees. In Italy, the Austrians crossed the Adige River and captured Romagna, and Marshal Murat, Emperor Napoleon's only betrayer, signed a treaty with the Vienna court. Belgians and Dutch rebelled against the French as well.
France was attacked on all fronts in January 1814. The Coalition made the wise decision to declare that they were only against Napoleon personally. In France, the French Legislative Assembly and Senate, which were previously easily obedient to Napoleon, were now standing up to demand peace as well as political and civil liberties.
The Treaty of Chaumont, signed in March 1814, agreed that Austria, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia would not negotiate separately with France for 20 years until Napoleon was deposed. Napoleon was forced to withdraw after losing the Battle of Leipzig, and the coalition entered Paris on March 30. The Parisian authorities did not fear Emperor Napoleon anymore, and they sought to contact the Coalition forces. Mr. Talleyrand, as leader of the provisional government, proposed the removal of Emperor Napoleon, then, without consulting the French people, he negotiated with Louis XVIII, brother of the executed French King. Louis XVI made the decision. When Napoleon withdrew his army to Fontainebleau, the city of Paris was reported to have surrendered to Union forces. Advised that resistance would be futile, Emperor Napoleon finally agreed to abdicate on April 11, 1814.
The Treaty of Fontainebleau was ratified. The coalition countries agreed to give Napoleon the administration of an emirate, the island of Elba, located northwest of the Italian coast, with an annual income of 2 million francs provided by France and a guard of 400 volunteers, and Napoleon retained the title of Emperor. After an unsuccessful suicide attempt by poison, Napoleon Bonaparte said goodbye to "the old guard" and went to live on the island of Elba. His wife and son lived with Emperor Francis I of Austria, his father-in-law. Napoleon never saw these two relatives again.
After the overthrow of Napoleon, Coalition leaders met in Vienna to devise a peace plan. In 1814, King Louis XVIII of the Bourbon family ascended to the French throne and issued an edict establishing a constitutional monarchy. The royalists waged "white terror" against the French Revolutionaries.
The French people criticized the Bourbon family's revival. Although Emperor Napoleon discouraged the French people in 1814, they did not want the royalists to return. With the assistance of coalition nations, King Louis XVIII ascended to the throne. The French people were still remembered for the Revolution's achievements. A plot against the new royal government was begun.
Napoleon continued to monitor the situation on the continent from the island of Elba. Politicians in Vienna thought the island of Elba was too close to France and Italy, so they wanted to exile Napoleon to an island far away in the Atlantic Ocean. Napoleon also complained that Austria had barred his wife and children from living with him on the island. In fact, Marie Louise now had a lover and had no intention of following her husband, and the French government had also refused to provide financing for Napoleon, leaving him in dire straits. All of these factors compelled Napoleon to act.
Napoleon Bonaparte stepped off the ship in February 1815, leaving the island of Elba and making his way through France with 1,100 loyal guards. They arrived in Cannes on March 1 and headed to Paris. As he crossed the Alps, Napoleon was greeted by the peasants who surrounded him. When Field Marshal Michel Ney led an army to capture Napoleon, the soldiers hailed Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor and joined the new army. King Louis XVIII fled when confronted with the new situation.
On March 20, Napoleon Bonaparte entered the city of Paris, was carried by the crowd, and brought into the Tuileries Palace. Soon after, Napoleon published a new constitution that limited his powers, and he also promised the coalition nations that he would not go to war. But the leaders of the coalition nations still saw Napoleon as "an enemy and a destroyer of world peace". So both sides prepared for war again.
Napoleon sent 125,000 troops to Belgium to counter the coalition armies gathered at the French border. On June 16, Napoleon defeated Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard von Blucher at Ligny, near Fleurus. On June 18, 1815, at Waterloo, the French took up combat with the British army led by General Wellington, who won the Peninsular War. It was a bloody battle. Thousands of French cavalrymen had entered the battle, and Napoleon was on the verge of victory. Suddenly, Marshal Blucher's Prussian army arrived, reinforcing the English army. Although the Imperial Guards fought valiantly, Napoleon was defeated because the coalition was too overwhelming. Napoleon lost 25,000 men killed or wounded, with 9,000 captured. General Wellington lost 15,000 men, while Field Marshal Blucher lost about 8,000 men. General Wellington's losses were 15,000 men, and Field Marshal Blucher's losses were about 8,000 men. Waterloo became one of the most famous battles in history.
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On June 22, 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris and abdicated for the second time. The Hundred Days Period refers to the time between Napoleon's return to Paris from the island of Elba and his abdication. On July 3, Napoleon arrived at Rochefort with the intention of finding a way to the Americas, but the British warship Bellerophon, commanded by Colonel Frederick Lewis Maitland, prevented the French ship carrying Napoleon from departing. Harbor. Napoleon was forced to request British protection. At that time, the coalition nations agreed on one point: Mr. Napoleon Bonaparte would not be returned to Elba, but would be transferred to a remote island. The British government later announced that the former royal residence would be relocated to the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean.
Napoleon arrived on the island of St. Helena on October 15, 1815, accompanied by a number of volunteers, including General Henri-Gratien Bertrand, a former field marshal with his wife, Count Charles de Montholon, attaché with his wife, General Gaspard Gourgaud, Mr. Emmanuel Las Cases, a former senior royal staff member, and several members of his old entourage. Napoleon Bonaparte moved into the governor's home in Longwood after a brief stay in the home of a wealthy English merchant.
8- The Last Days of Emperor Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte returned to dull everyday life. Every day he wakes up late, around 10 a.m., and rarely leaves the house. He was free to roam the island, but only on the condition that he be accompanied by a British officer. He did not accept, staying at home to read books and talk with old relatives. His secretary, Las Cases, recorded the accounts of the former French Emperor and compiled them into books later.
Napoleon ate dinner between 7 and 8 p.m., then spent time playing cards or reading books. He preferred classical compositions. He also learned English and began reading English newspapers, but he also had many French books sent over from the continent, which he read carefully and annotated.
Saint Helena is a pleasant island with a pleasant climate, but Napoleon, a man who had conquered Europe for 20 years, could not bear the loneliness and confinement of a remote island. Napoleon Bonaparte had received no news from his wife or children, and he didn't know that Queen Marie Louise had secretly married an Austrian officer named Graf Adam von Neipperg without waiting for his death. His son, Francois Charles Joseph Bonaparte, was born on March 20, 1811, with the title "King of Rome," but as he grew up, he now lives as a prisoner under the watchful eye of his maternal grandfather, Austrian Emperor Francis I. At that time, coalition politicians were still afraid that Napoleon's supporters would use his son to seek power in the country. In France, Francois Bonaparte was renamed Marquis de Reichardt.
Sir Hudson Lowe, who took over as governor of St. Helena in April 1816, made Napoleon's life even more difficult. Napoleon had previously disliked Mr. Lowe, who had commanded the assault troops on Corsica, and this group of soldiers largely hated the Bonaparte family. Sir Lowe also had a grudge against Mr. Las Cases, Napoleon's trusted confidant, and attempted to arrest and deport him from the island. As a result, Napoleon's relationship with the governor-general deteriorated.
The former Emperor showed signs of illness at the end of 1817, due in part to a lack of exercise. Napoleon was suffering from stomach cancer symptoms. Mr. Barry O' Meara, an Irish doctor, once advised Napoleon to change his lifestyle, but he was transferred to another location. In his place was a mediocre doctor named Francesco Antommarchi, originally from the island of Corsica, who treated the former Emperor but failed to cure the incurable disease of the time.
In early 1821, Napoleon's illness worsened. Since March, the former Emperor has been bedridden. In April, Napoleon Bonaparte read out his will, which included the words: "I wish to keep my bones lying on the banks of the Seine, in the midst of the French people whom I love so much. I died prematurely, killed by the English oligarchy and by hired killers."
On May 5, 1821, the former Emperor Napoleon whispered: "My God, France, my son, the commander of the army". Napoleon died at 5:49 p.m. that day, at the age of 52. His body was dressed in his favorite military uniform and was draped in the gray cloak he wore during the battle of Marengo. His funeral was held simply in the Rupert Valley, where he frequently went for a walk, and on the grave beside two weeping willow trees is a stone inscription: "Here rests" (Ci-Git).
In 1840, Prince Francois, son of King Louis-Philippe of France, was dispatched on a warship to the island of St. Helena to bring the remains of the former Emperor Napoleon back to France in accordance with his last wish. In December of that year, a solemn funeral was held in Paris, and Napoleon Bonaparte's coffin was passed through the Arc de Triomphe and placed in the Eglise du Dome, which is part of the Monument to the Soldiers of the Dead (Hotel des Invalides).
Napoleon Bonaparte is both a historical and mythical figure. It can be difficult to distinguish between these two aspects because events in his life sparked the imaginations of famous writers, great playwrights, and multi-talented filmmakers; they are the ones who built the Napoleonic legends.
Napoleon Bonaparte was one of history's most brilliant military leaders. He was regarded as an ambitious conqueror. Napoleon himself stated that he did not wish to conquer other nations, but rather to establish a federation of Europe's free nations with a radical government. However, Napoleon desired to concentrate all power in his own hands for this purpose.
The motto "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" of the French Revolution of 1789 did not allow the French people to fully enjoy democracy as in the twentieth century yet, but since 1815, the French people have been somewhat more liberal, and the middle class no longer meets the limits of the old regime's prohibition. Tolerance was extended to Protestants, Jews, and liberals in France and in lands under French influence. The French Constitution of 1815 did not fully realize the democratic ideals enshrined in the Declaration of the Rights of Man, but it did include a new form of democracy.
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire both established the principle of equality prior to the obligation to pay taxes. The third estate was given more economic opportunities, commercial impediments were removed, and large tracts of land belonging to the aristocratic and monastic classes were distributed to the urban bourgeoisie and the rich peasantry. The Ventose Act of 1794 established property equality, which was later expanded.
The French Revolution made an important contribution to the rise of the middle class, both urban and rural. The Napoleonic Code then buried all the social inequality of the old regime and because of that, Napoleon said: "Whether I was the First Consul or the Emperor, I was already a King of the People." I have ruled for the nation, and for the sake of the nation, without allowing myself to be biased by opposition or for the interests of any particular group.
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire also developed fraternity, through which all French people were considered equal before the law and at the same time promoted nationalism, a feeling of belonging. of a broader population is France, a country considered by its people to be superior and equal to other nations. Before 1789, the national spirit of France existed through such figures as Joan of Arc, King Henry IV, and King Louis 14, and later on, that national spirit was reflected in the general mobilization law of the 23rd. August 1793 of the Nation Convention. The Napoleonic Empire showed how the national spirit had easily led to an "imperial" regime of a magnitude that had never been seen before.
During the French Revolution, Robespierre and the Jacobins were uncompromising politicians, followed by Thermidor and Brumaire figures becoming more real and moderate, and then under Napoleon, the spirit revolution became a kind of "religion", demanding political orthodoxy, and the "national" spirit after 1815 made up "soldiers, apostles and martyrs” (martyrs) in many places on the face of the earth.
After Napoleon Bonaparte's death, there were books both praising and criticizing the former emperor's reputation. "De Buonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la Nécessité de se rallier à nos princes légitimes, 1814," by the famous French writer and royal sympathizer Francois de Chateaubriand, was a literary work critical of Napoleon. Later in 1870, when the Second Empire fell, there were also books criticizing Napoleon, represented by Hippolyte Taine's "Origines de la France Contemporaine, 1876-94". In the Encyclopédie, rationalists referred to Napoleon Bonaparte as "the Corsican ogre," who dared to sacrifice 500,000 people for his ambitions.
Despite the above criticisms, Napoleon Bonaparte's myths spread quickly. The memoirs, accounts, and records of the former Emperor's exiles all contributed significantly to the creation of these legends. As early as 1814, there were poems in praise of Napoleon, such as the short poem by Lord Byron (Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte), and the poem "Die Grenadiere" by the German poet Henrich Heine. Napoleon's life is depicted in the 1817 novel "Vie de Napoleon" by French novelist Stendhal.
In 1822, Doctor O'Meara published in London the book "Napoléon in Exile", and the following year, in 1823, appeared a book by Montholon and Gourgard called "Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de France sous Napoléon, écrits à Sainte-Helène sous sa dictée"
Through his famous work "Memorial," Napoleon's personal secretary, Las Cases, also presented the former Emperor as a republican who had rebelled against Europe in defense of freedom. Doctor Antommarchi's book "Derniers moments de Napoléon" was also published in 1825, increasing the number of works praising Napoleon, particularly his odes. Victor Hugo's work, "Victoires et Conquêtes des Francais", and Sir Walter Scott's work, "The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French".
Napoleon Bonaparte is a character who has left many lasting legacies that France is still building today, that is, the administrative system of the provinces (prefects), the Napoleonic Code, the judicial system, the Bank of France. and national financial institutions, universities and military academies.
Napoleon Bonaparte is a historical figure who changed the History of France and of the World.
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